{"id":92768,"date":"2026-04-08T10:52:09","date_gmt":"2026-04-08T02:52:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.hkbts.edu.hk\/?p=92768"},"modified":"2026-04-30T12:29:10","modified_gmt":"2026-04-30T04:29:10","slug":"spirit-or-pneuma-translation-and-contextual-issues","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.hkbts.edu.hk\/en\/?p=92768\/","title":{"rendered":"Pneuma or Spirit? A Question of Translation and Context"},"content":{"rendered":"<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"92768\" class=\"elementor elementor-92768\" data-elementor-post-type=\"post\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-0e47810 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"0e47810\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f74ca23\" data-id=\"f74ca23\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-326432a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"326432a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<style>.elementor-element-326432a{display:none !important}<\/style>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-716d230 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"716d230\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-no-translation=\"\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4>Daniel Lam<\/h4>\nAssistant Professor of New Testament\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bbb24bd elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"bbb24bd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"512\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.hkbts.edu.hk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/%E9%99%A2%E8%A8%8A%E6%96%87%E7%AB%A0-6.png?fit=1024%2C512&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-92739\" alt=\"\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d8f8832 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d8f8832\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<style>.elementor-element-d8f8832{display:none !important}<\/style>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-81e5abf elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"81e5abf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-no-translation=\"\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #235ba8; font-size: 24px;\"><strong>Rethinking <em>Pneuma<\/em> in Paul<\/strong><\/h3><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000When the Apostle Paul wrote \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1, what did he have in mind? For most modern readers, the answer seems straightforward: human or holy spirit, that is, the Third Person of the Trinity, a divine agent of comfort, conviction, and power. This theological reading is so natural that it feels obvious, and it is almost instinctive to readers and translators. <em><strong>But recently, this translation has been challenged. This article seeks to discuss what those objections are and explore the possibility of translating \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 differently. <\/strong><\/em><\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000The history of modern scholarship shows a persistent tension between theological and historical approaches. In the early 20th century, Hermann Gunkel proposed dichotomies that separated Pauline <em>pneuma<\/em> from its Old Testament and Hellenistic Jewish roots and framed it as \u201csupernatural\u201d versus natural. This move proved to be influential as this framework was adopted by important figures like Rudolf Bultmann and Ernst K\u00e4semann, whose deeply Lutheran readings further solidified a \u201cspiritualizing\u201d interpretation that prioritized inner, subjective religious experience. In this stream of scholarship, <em>pneuma<\/em> became synonymous with the inner life of faith, often at the expense of its cosmic and corporeal dimensions.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000At the end of the 20th century, a significant corrective emerged, with scholars who insisted on a more historically grounded, \u201cphysicalist\u201d reading. <em><strong>Dale Martin\u2019s<\/strong><\/em> <em>The Corinthian Body<\/em> (1995) was groundbreaking, showing how Paul\u2019s audience understood bodies and spirits within a holistic ancient cosmology where the physical and spiritual were intertwined. <em><strong>Troels Engberg-Pedersen<\/strong><\/em> then argued in <em>Cosmology and Self in the Apostle Paul<\/em> (2010) for reading Pauline <em>pneuma<\/em> through a Stoic lens, as the cosmic, intelligent \u201cbreath\u201d that constitutes and unifies all matter. These works represent a major shift, taking Paul\u2019s materialism seriously. This means setting aside our post-Cartesian idea of \u201cspirit\u201d as a non-material, private feeling, and recovering the ancient, concrete understanding of <em>pneuma<\/em> as a physical substance. For these scholars, the most helpful key to this recovery is Stoic philosophy, the dominant intellectual framework of Paul\u2019s Greco-Roman world.<\/p><h3 class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #235ba8; font-size: 24px;\"><strong>Why a Stoic, Material <em>Pneuma<\/em>? <\/strong><\/h3><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000For the Stoics, <em>pneuma<\/em> is not a ghost or immaterial being. It is the cosmic life-force, an intelligent mixture of air and fire that permeates and structures the universe. It is the tension in a rope, the growth in a plant, the rational mind of a human, and the substance of the stars. This <em>pneuma<\/em> is divine, rational, and utterly material. It constitutes a hierarchy of being, from dense rocks to rarified gods, with no unbridgeable chasm between the physical and the divine.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000Engberg-Pedersen argues that Paul\u2019s audiences\u2014Jew and Gentile alike\u2014breathed this intellectual air. When Paul spoke of <em>pneuma<\/em>, they would have heard echoes of this cosmic, animating substance. <em><strong>The automatic translation of pneuma as a disembodied \u201cSpirit\u201d is therefore an anachronism, importing a modern mind\/body dualism that would have been foreign to Paul. <\/strong><\/em>To read him correctly, Engberg-Pedersen contends, we must take his physical language literally: <em> pneuma<\/em> is a stuff that can be poured, drunk, and infused; it transforms the believer from the inside out via a tangible, physiological reality.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000<em><strong>Viewing pneuma through this Stoic, materialist lens dramatically reshapes how we read familiar passages. <\/strong><\/em> Consider first Paul\u2019s discussion of the resurrection body in<em><strong> 1 Corinthians 15:44-45<\/strong><\/em>. Here Paul contrasts the \u201cnatural body\u201d (\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd) sown in death with the \u201cspiritual body\u201d (\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd) raised in life, culminating in his striking declaration that the risen Christ became a \u201clife-giving <em>pneuma<\/em>.\u201d The conventional reading understands the \u201cspiritual body\u201d as a glorified, immortal body oriented by the Holy Spirit, with Christ either possessing the Spirit or being accompanied by him. But Engberg-Pedersen offers a different perspective by connecting this passage to Paul\u2019s earlier mention of heavenly bodies like the sun and moon in 1 Corinthians 15:40-41. He argues that for Paul, a \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd is a body actually made of <em>pneuma<\/em>-stuff, analogous to the Stoic understanding of stars as composed of this refined, divine substance. Thus Christ, as the \u201clast Adam,\u201d has not merely received the Spirit; rather, his resurrected mode of existence is <em>pneuma<\/em> itself. He becomes the source of that life-giving, material substance that will ultimately reconstitute believers. In this reading, resurrection is not merely a restoration of life but a physical transformation into an entirely new, pneumatic order of being.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000A second example comes from <em><strong>Romans 5:5<\/strong><\/em>, where Paul writes that \u201cGod\u2019s love has been poured out into our hearts through the Holy Spirit (<em>pneuma<\/em>) who has been given to us\u201d (NIV). The conventional reading takes this as a beautiful metaphor for the internal, emotional assurance of God\u2019s love provided by the Holy Spirit. But the materialist reading reveals something more literal. Following ancient medical theories known as Pneumatism, pneuma was understood as an external substance drawn into the body through breathing, processed by the heart, and then channeled through the arteries to govern thoughts and actions. When Paul speaks of <em>pneuma<\/em> being \u201cpoured into our hearts,\u201d he may be describing an actual physiological process: the divine <em>pneuma<\/em> is literally infused into the cardiac centre of the believer, physically altering his\/her constitution and enabling him\/her to act in accordance with God\u2019s love. The change, in this view, is simultaneously cognitive and corporeal\u2014a transformation of the whole person, inside and out.<\/p><h3 class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #235ba8; font-size: 24px;\"><strong>Scholarly Pushback: Two Major Critiques<\/strong><\/h3><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000While this view is gaining momentum, this materialist thesis has faced criticism from other leading scholars. John Barclay and John Levison pinpoint two major tensions in Engberg-Pedersen\u2019s proposal.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000<em><strong>Barclay <\/strong><\/em>argues that Engberg-Pedersen\u2019s model, for all its philosophical precision, misses the core of Paul\u2019s theology: the radical, disruptive newness of the Christ event. For Paul, the <em>pneuma<\/em> is not a pre-existing cosmic substance simply transferred from heaven to earth. It is an unprecedented, eschatological entity unleashed by Christ\u2019s resurrection, a \u201cnew creation\u201d (2 Cor 5:17). Regarding 1 Corinthians 15, Barclay disputes the claim that \u201cheavenly bodies\u201d such as the sun, moon, and stars are explicitly called \u201cpneumatic.\u201d Paul\u2019s point, he contends, is God\u2019s power to give each its own kind of body, not to outline a Stoic scala naturae or hierarchy of being. The \u201clife-giving <em>pneuma<\/em>\u201d in verse 45 is the power of resurrection itself, not a higher-grade cosmic material. To reduce it to Stoic physics, Barclay warns, is to turn the resurrection into a mere \u201creordering of already-existing cosmic elements.\u201d<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000However, it is important to avoid imposing modern, dualist categories of \u201cspiritual vs. material\u201d onto Paul altogether. As such, to transliterate <em>pneuma<\/em> is precisely a tool to suspend our theological assumptions long enough to hear Paul on his own terms. Using this tool, we can see that Paul describes the new life in Christ using the best available language of his day for a transformative power, namely, the language of a divine, life-altering substance. This does not require us to claim that Paul was a Stoic or that the <em>pneuma<\/em> is \u201cjust\u201d medical <em>pneuma<\/em>. It simply asserts that this was the conceptual tool Paul employed to articulate the very ineffable newness that Barclay wants to protect. The \u201cnewness\u201d resides in the salvific action of God in Christ; the mechanism of description, however, is the contemporary materialist framework of the first-century world.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000<em><strong>Levison<\/strong><\/em>, for his part, agrees that <em>pneuma<\/em> has a concrete dimension but charges Engberg-Pedersen with a selective and sometimes strained use of Stoicism, while neglecting the richer parallels in Paul\u2019s Jewish heritage. He raises two specific concerns. First, the Stoic models Engberg-Pedersen employs, such as the cosmic conflagration (\u1f14\u03ba\u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) or a passing comment from Cicero on divination, do not convincingly explain the ongoing, transformative work of <em>pneuma<\/em> in believers. Meanwhile, actual Stoic accounts of inspiration, such as those describing the oracle at Delphi, portray<em> pneuma<\/em> as a terrestrial vapor or breeze, not as a substance flowing through preached words. Second, and more centrally, Levison points to the dearth of engagement with Jewish texts where <em>pneuma<\/em> is also depicted as both concrete and cognitive. He cites the \u201cspirit\u201d placed upon the elders to govern (Nm 11:25), the \u201cexcellent spirit\u201d of wisdom in Daniel (Dn 5:12), and the spirit that besieges Elihu, forcing out wise speech (Jb 32:18-20). The Dead Sea Scrolls, too, present a community transformed and granted knowledge by the spirit. For Levison, this Jewish matrix provides a more direct and likely foreground for Paul\u2019s thinking than an abstracted Stoic physics.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000Setting aside Levison\u2019s misguided dichotomy of Judaism and the Greco-Roman world (see Hengel\u2019s Judaism and Hellenism, which has become a scholarly consensus; one cannot separate Judaism from its surrounding culture), there is a way to honor Levison\u2019s concerns while retaining materialist insight. Medicine, after all, was a shared cultural vernacular across the Hellenistic world, including Judea. A Hellenistic Jew like Paul could easily integrate the Jewish concept of <em>ruach<\/em> (understood as God\u2019s powerful, life-giving breath) with contemporary medical understandings of <em>pneuma<\/em> as an animating bodily substance. To argue for a \u201cmedical\u201d <em>pneuma<\/em>, then, is not to choose \u201cGreek\u201d over \u201cJewish.\u201d Rather, it is to identify the common intellectual currency through which Jewish theological concepts could be understood in physical terms. This provides a more satisfying answer to Levison\u2019s critique: <em><strong>the physicality of pneuma in Paul needs not come exclusively from Stoic philosophy. It could just as plausibly emerge from the synthesis of Jewish theology and the widespread biomedical concepts that permeated the ancient Mediterranean world<\/strong><\/em>, not dissimilar from what Philo did in his work.<\/p><h3 class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #235ba8; font-size: 24px;\"><strong>Synthesis: What Is at Stake? <\/strong><\/h3><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000Here we must acknowledge that <em>pneuma<\/em> may indeed carry Stoic connotations. Engberg-Pedersen correctly observes that for Paul\u2019s first-century audience, the word <em>pneuma <\/em>would have evoked a material, cosmic, life-giving substance. Yet we must also attend to the limits of Engberg-Pedersen\u2019s argument. The <em>pneuma<\/em> in Paul\u2019s letters is not merely Stoic cosmic matter. Certain passages attribute unmistakably personal actions to <em>pneuma<\/em>: it \u201cintercedes for us with groanings too deep for words\u201d (Rom 8:26 NABS); it \u201capportions to each one individually as he wills\u201d (1 Cor 12:11 ESV); it can be \u201cgrieved\u201d (Eph 4:30). These are not things that a mere material \u201csubstance\u201d can do; they imply a person with emotions, will, and relational capacity. To reduce <em>pneuma<\/em> entirely to Stoic matter is to miss this crucial personal dimension in Paul\u2019s theology.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000Thus, Engberg-Pedersen\u2019s thesis requires correction, not wholesale acceptance. He rightly alerts us to the material dimension of <em>pneuma<\/em>, but his model overemphasizes Stoic continuity and fails to fully account for the personhood Paul attributes to <em>pneuma<\/em> and the radical newness introduced by the Christ event. For careful readers, the path to the richest understanding may lie precisely in holding this tension: recognizing the concrete, material connotations of <em>pneuma<\/em> in its ancient context while also acknowledging its personal role in Paul\u2019s letters.<\/p><h3 class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #235ba8; font-size: 24px;\"><strong>Taking the Debate Seriously<\/strong><\/h3><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000An important clarification is necessary here: we need not fully accept Engberg-Pedersen\u2019s thesis, nor must we claim that Paul was a Stoic, in order to benefit from this discussion (in fact, Engberg-Pedersen never made such a claim). As Christians, if we care about God\u2019s word, in this case what Paul actually said, we must remain open to the possibility that our understanding of <em>pneuma<\/em> may be incomplete and need correction or enrichment. Engberg-Pedersen\u2019s argument may not be entirely correct, but he has raised a question worth taking seriously: <em><strong>Have our modern cultural assumptions caused us to miss certain dimensions of what Paul originally intended to communicate? <\/strong><\/em><\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000Transliterating <em>pneuma<\/em> is precisely the tool that helps us take this question seriously. It does not force us to accept any particular conclusion, but rather creates a space where we can pause and ask: \u201cWhat did Paul mean when he used the word <em>pneuma<\/em> here?\u201d This questioning is an act of greater faithfulness to Scripture. It acknowledges that God\u2019s revelation may be richer and deeper than we have yet understood, and it allows the biblical text to challenge us rather than merely confirming what we already think we know.<\/p><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000It is worth noting that this practice of transliterating pneuma is particularly compelling in the case of Paul\u2019s letters. This is because we can identify with reasonable specificity both Paul\u2019s audience (communities of Jews and Gentiles in the first-century Greco-Roman world) and his historical context (a period when Stoicism and medical theories were prevalent). In this particular historical setting, Paul\u2019s listeners would have understood <em>pneuma<\/em> in ways far closer to the word\u2019s rich cultural connotations than modern readers do. <em><strong>Therefore, at least in the case of Paul\u2019s letters, using the transliteration pneuma rather than translating it as \u201cSpirit\u201d can better help us avoid anachronism and more faithfully hear what Paul intended to communicate. <\/strong><\/em><\/p><h3 class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #235ba8; font-size: 24px;\"><strong>Conclusion<\/strong><\/h3><p align=\"\u201cjustify\u201d\">\u3000\u3000In the end, transliterating <em>pneuma<\/em> is not an act of laziness or an evasion of the translator\u2019s task. It is an expression of deeper faithfulness to the text. It invites us into an ongoing exploration, allowing Paul himself to tell us what his <em>pneuma<\/em> truly means. In the course of this exploration, we come to know better not only Paul but also the God who spoke through him.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Daniel Lam, Assistant Professor of New Testament, Rethinks Pneuma in Paul&#039;s Writings: What did the Apostle Paul mean when he wrote the Greek word \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 (transliterated as pneuma)? For most modern readers, the answer seems very simple: the human spirit or the Holy Spirit, the latter being the third person of the Triune God, a powerful and persuasive divine agent who gives comfort and conviction. We naturally recall this theological interpretation, as if it were the obvious answer; readers and translators almost instinctively understand it this way. However, in recent years, some have questioned whether \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 should be translated as &quot;spirit.&quot; This article aims to explore these objections and the possibility of translating the word \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 in other ways. Modern academic research on this issue has always demonstrated the tension between theological and historical approaches. At the beginning of the 20th century, Hermann Gunkel proposed a dichotomy, separating the Puneuma in Paul&#039;s letters from its Old Testament and Hellenistic Jewish roots, placing it within a framework of a dualistic opposition between the &quot;supernatural&quot; and the natural. This move had a profound impact, as this framework was later further developed by giants such as Rudolf Bultmann and Ernst K\u00e4semann. Their Lutheran interpretations solidified a &quot;spiritual&quot; interpretation that emphasized the inner, subjective religious experience. In this school of thought, the spirit was equated with the inner life of faith, often neglecting its cosmic and physical dimensions. A significant revision occurred at the end of the 20th century, with some scholars insisting on a more historically grounded &quot;physicalist&quot; interpretation. Dale Martin&#039;s groundbreaking work, *The Corinthian Body* (1995), elucidated how Paul&#039;s audience understood the body and spirit within a holistic ancient cosmology, in which matter and spirit were intertwined. Later, Troels Engberg-Pedersen, in *Cosmology and Self in the Apostle Paul* (2010), argued for a Stoic interpretation of the &quot;pnuuma&quot; in Paul&#039;s letters\u2014the intelligent &quot;breath&quot; of the universe that constitutes and unites all things. These studies marked a significant shift, with scholars beginning to seriously consider Paul&#039;s materialistic view. This meant abandoning the post-Cartesian notion of the &quot;spirit&quot; as a non-material, personal feeling and reviving the ancient understanding of substance: viewing pnuuma as substantial matter. For these scholars, the key to rediscovering this interpretation lies in Stoic philosophy, because it was the dominant ideology in the Greco-Roman world in which Paul lived.<\/p>","protected":false},"author":148,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[353,358],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-92768","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-_2026","category-358"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.4 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>\u9748\u2026\u2026\u6291\u6216\u666e\u7d10\u746a\uff1f\u7ffb\u8b6f\u8207\u8a9e\u5883\u7684\u554f\u984c - 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Translation and Contextual Issues - Hong Kong Baptist Theological Seminary","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/www.hkbts.edu.hk\/en\/?p=92768\/","og_locale":"en_US","og_type":"article","og_title":"\u9748\u2026\u2026\u6291\u6216\u666e\u7d10\u746a\uff1f\u7ffb\u8b6f\u8207\u8a9e\u5883\u7684\u554f\u984c - \u9999\u6e2f\u6d78\u4fe1\u6703\u795e\u5b78\u9662","og_description":"\u6797\u5929\u7950 \u65b0\u7d04\u52a9\u7406\u6559\u6388 Daniel Lam Assistant Professor of New Testament \u518d\u601d\u4fdd\u7f85\u7b46\u4e0b\u7684\u666e\u7d10\u746a \u3000\u3000\u4f7f\u5f92\u4fdd\u7f85\u5beb\u5e0c\u81d8\u6587\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1\uff08\u97f3\u8b6f\uff1a\u666e\u7d10\u746a \/ 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\u3000\u3000\u73fe\u4ee3\u5b78\u8853\u754c\u5c0d\u9019\u500b\u554f\u984c\u7684\u7814\u7a76\u6b77\u4f86\u5c55\u73fe\u51fa\u795e\u5b78\u9032\u8def\u8207\u6b77\u53f2\u9032\u8def\u4e4b\u9593\u7684\u5f35\u529b\u3002\u4e8c\u5341\u4e16\u7d00\u521d\uff0c\u889e\u514b\u723e\uff08Hermann Gunkel\uff09\u63d0\u51fa\u4e8c\u5206\u6cd5\uff0c\u5c07\u4fdd\u7f85\u66f8\u4fe1\u4e2d\u7684\u666e\u7d10\u746a\u5f9e\u5176\u820a\u7d04\u53ca\u5e0c\u81d8\u5316\u7336\u592a\u6559\u7684\u6839\u6e90\u5272\u88c2\u51fa\u4f86\uff0c\u653e\u9032\u300c\u8d85\u81ea\u7136\u300d\u8207\u81ea\u7136\u4e8c\u5143\u5c0d\u7acb\u7684\u6846\u67b6\u3002\u6b64\u8209\u5f71\u97ff\u6df1\u9060\uff0c\u56e0\u9019\u6846\u67b6\u5f8c\u4f86\u7531\u5e03\u7279\u66fc\uff08Rudolf Bultmann\uff09\u548c\u84cb\u58eb\u66fc\uff08Ernst 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